Tribal communities have always been fiercely independent. They have resisted being part of villages, kingdoms, and empires, and therefore, have often been accused of being ‘savage’ and ‘primitive’. They have lived in the forest, foraging and hunting for food, practicing sustenance agriculture and herding, and occasionally trading forest produce in markets.
They often came in conflict with kings who sought to establish new agricultural lands or build trade routes through forests. The Bhils defeated the Mughal army, and tribal leaders like Birsa Munda were the early revolutionaries to resist British rule. Tribes have traditionally refused to pay taxes but preferred trading with communities, and occasionally offering military services to kings.
The words used for tribes range from adivasi (earliest inhabitants) to vanavasi (forest dwellers) to atavika (forest folk) to girijan (mountain folk). Other words used for specific tribes are Nishadha and Kirata. In the Mahabharata, we encounter Ekalavya, a Nishadha, and Shiva fighting Arjuna by taking the form of a Kirata. It is believed that ‘vanaras’ of the Ramayana and ‘asuras’ of the Mahabharata were forest and hill people who shunned cultivated land.
The epics are full of stories where sages and kings marry Yaksha and Rakshasa women. Krishna’s wife, Jambavati, was the daughter of a ‘bear’. These are clearly metaphors for people who lived in forests and did not subscribe to the Aryan way of life, based on yagna rituals. In the Bhagavata Purana, we are told when the greedy king Vena was killed, two beings emerged from his dead body: the Nishada who chose to live in the forest and Prithu who chose to cultivate the earth responsibly.
Genes and cultures of India’s tribes
Around 10% of India’s population belongs to nearly 700 tribal communities, who live in small communities in the hills of Aravalli, Sahyadri, Nilgiri, Himachal, Uttaranchal, Purvanchal, forests of the Tarai, and in the plateaus of Central India. Tribes like the Banjara are nomads. Bhils and Gonds live around the Vindhya. Kinnaurs live on the hills of Himachal. There are many tribes in Northeast India like Khasi and Garo.
Incidentally, the word Naga does not mean a tribe – it is a local word used in lowland markets for hill tribes who wore few clothes and bored their ears. Many nomadic tribes have turned to agriculture. Nearly 10% of these tribes are considered Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG), who are very remote, whose culture is threatened.
Genetically, they have the oldest genes of the Early ‘Out of Africa’ genepool. Those in the South only have the Harappan Gene, those in the North have additionally the Aryan gene, those in Central India have the Austro-Asian (from Southeast Asia) and those in the Northeast have the Tibeto-Burmese gene. The tribes on Andaman Island have no such mixtures from later immigrants.
History and mythology
The wall paintings of the Bhimbetka caves of India and the Paleographs (Stone art) on the Western coast of India reveal that tribes had left their mark on India over 12,000 years ago. 4500-year-old Harappan seals show men and women with bison horns, similar to the ones worn by the Maria tribe of Central India. There are many words traceable to Munda tribes in the 3500-year-old Rig Veda, indicating early encounters.
Scholars have noted that tribes have their own mythology with their own star myths, indicating they lived very separate lives from mainstream Indians. For example, while Hindus see the Krittika constellation as made up of a group of celestial ladies, the Banjara see it as a cluster of jewels, the Koku as minced meat, the Warli as drummers and lamps in a wedding procession, the Nicobarese as ancestors, and Gond as stones thrown at a flock of birds.
There are many temples in India that reveal a relationship formed between independent tribal people and kings who established temples to control agricultural land. The Jagannath temple of Odisha is closely linked with local tribes, who were guardians of the original Nila Madhav statue. The Chenchu tribe’s daughter marries Narasimha of Andhra Pradesh. Murugan of Tamil Nadu has the tribal girl Valli as one of his brides.
Unique customs of marriage, and craftsmanship
Isolation has allowed tribal communities to preserve their local beliefs and practices. This is most evident in their marriage practice. The women of the Bonda tribe of Odisha marry younger men who take care of them when they are old. The Toda of the Nilgiris and Kinnaur of Himachal let one woman marry many men to prevent the division of property. The Bhils of Central India expect the groom to pay a bride price.
The Baiga keep the son-in-law in the bride’s house till the bride price is paid. Garo tribes of Meghalaya abduct grooms. If he runs away, he is permitted to marry someone else. Gonds encourage women and men to elope. The Murias permit boys and girls to live in the ‘ghotul’ (youth dormitory) before they choose their life partners.
The tribes of Central India were the original makers of iron tools. Tribes of Rajasthan are famous for their jewelry which is usually made of silver, and copper. The nomadic Banjara were once famous for transporting goods. The Warli tribes of Maharashtra and Gonds of Central India have become famous for their unique paintings. The Dangs of Gujarat are famous for their bamboo weaves. Naga tribes are famous for their tattoos.
In fact, all tribes use tattoos to indicate their clan identity and various rites of passage. North Eastern tribes are famous for weaving unique textiles using cotton, wool and silk. All tribes play a key role in forest conservation and the protection of wild flora and fauna.
Tribal identity in transition?
Increasingly, they are being educated in schools where they are being taught Hindi and English which is not their native language. So they are slowly distanced from their traditional culture and become more mainstream, choosing life in cities, in industries, in army and government. Many convert to Christianity or Islam, faiths that are strictly monotheist and do not permit the worship of tribal gods.
Some argue that Sanatana Dharma accommodates tribal people. Others disagree, as many tribes have their own gods, rituals and practices. Their diet includes various types of meat, fish, insects, and animals that many caste Hindu shun. Many in Jharkhand and Chattisgarh argue that Sarnaism, based on the veneration of forest groves and sacred ponds, should be seen as a separate religion to ensure their survival. If tribes give up their ritual, marriage, and food practices, it will mark the end of their culture.
