We have often heard about the great Islamic Caliphate, established by the Abbasid Empire in Baghdad in the 8th century and destroyed in the 13th century by the Mongols. What is less discussed is how Buddhism played a pivotal role in both the rise and fall of Baghdad, the centre of the great Islamic Empire.
The reason for this omission is that many Muslim historians are reluctant to acknowledge that, in the early years of Islam, not everyone converted immediately. The process of conversion was gradual, taking place over centuries.
Much of the history written later assumes that, with the arrival of Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century and the spread of Arab military campaigns, all the conquered lands converted to Islam almost instantly. This, however, is far from the truth.
The struggles a growing Islam faced
As the Islamic Empire expanded, the capital shifted from Mecca in Arabia, first to Damascus near the Mediterranean, then eventually to Baghdad in modern-day Iraq.
From its inception, the Islamic world had to contend with Christians in the west and Zoroastrians in the east, particularly in Persia. The Persians, with their long history of empire-building, possessed deep knowledge of governance and played a significant role in the rise of Baghdad. However, they also resented the replacement of their ancient Persian traditions with the new Arabic ways.
Baghdad became a hub of learning, where mathematics, science, and languages flourished. The city played a crucial role in transmitting knowledge from India to Europe. The famed House of Wisdom in Baghdad translated Sanskrit texts into Arabic, enabling a flow of knowledge to the West that eventually contributed to the scientific revolution.
What often gets overlooked is the role of the Barmakid family in Baghdad’s ascent. The Barmakids were recent converts to Islam, originally Buddhists, and former pramuka (leaders) of the Nava Vihara monastery in Central Asia. While they had embraced Islam, they retained the extensive knowledge of their monastic background, including expertise in medicine, mathematics, alchemy, astronomy, and an enduring passion for knowledge that extended beyond Islamic scriptures. This intellectual legacy ushered in a golden age, transforming Baghdad into a global centre of learning and culture.
We hear echoes of this golden period in the Arabian Nights folk tales. While many are familiar with the malevolent Jaffar in Disney’s Aladdin, inspired by the tales of Emperor Harun al-Rashid, few are aware that Jaffar was originally from a Buddhist family.
The Barmakid family encouraged the rulers of Baghdad to design the city in a circular shape, inspired by Buddhist tantric mandalas, where the centre is occupied by Adi Buddha, surrounded by Dhyani Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. This Buddhist connection may have contributed to the sudden and dramatic fall of the Barmakid family from royal grace.
How followers of Buddhism destroyed an Islamic empire
In the 13th century, the Mongols who destroyed Baghdad were themselves adherents of Vajrayana Buddhism. They revered Mahakala Bhairava, a fierce form of Avalokiteshvara, and used this war deity’s mystical power in their campaigns. It was Mahakala’s fearsome influence they believed fuelled the destruction of Baghdad.
War-magic of Tibetan Buddhism had drawn the attention of the Mongols to Buddhism. They had their own gods, but this occult technology fascinated them. Eventually, the softer side of Buddhism was used by Chinese Emperors to ‘tame’ the wild Mongols, during the Manchu period.
It was during the Mongol Ilkhanate of Hulugu Khan, in the 13th century, elements of Buddhist and Zoroastrian symbolism began to influence Islamic art. For instance, some of the earliest Islamic paintings from this period depict wings of re around saints—an idea rooted in both Zoroastrianism and tantric Buddhism.
This was the time paper was introduced to Iran from China as was the printing press. Baghdad chose paper but not the printing press. The Tibetan practice of using printed sheets of mantras as charms, gave rise to the Islamic practice of tabeez or talisman.
Moreover, the Buddhist concept of reincarnation was employed to explain the Mongols’ victory over the Caliphs of Baghdad. It was said that the Mongols were reincarnations of the Buddha and earlier prophets, preceding Prophet Muhammad. This narrative gave them the moral authority to overthrow a corrupt regime that had deviated from the path of Islam.
When Mongols with Tantrik Buddhism were causing the fall of Baghdad, India was being run by Central Asian Turks such as the Khiljis. As per one legend, Genghis Khan, grandfather of Hulagu Khan, refused to enter India after he saw a rhinoceros, a symbol linked to solitary Buddhist monks. Maybe it was discomfort with Buddhist war-magic that made him turn around and focus his energy on West Asia.
But his grandsons used this war magic to establish the greatest Empire the world has ever known. Kublai Khan used Tantrik Buddhism in China while Hulagu did the same in Persia. Most people know of the former, few speak of the latter.
Thus, while Buddhism is often portrayed as a passive and non-violent religion, its influence was instrumental in both the rise and fall of the great Muslim city of Baghdad.
